Cognitive Architecture of Learning

Working memory constraints

• Limited capacity:
• Process
• Manipulate
• Integrate
• Decide
• Diagram: working memory holds about 4 items, plus or minus 1, with the things that compete for space pressing in on it.
• Competes for space:
• Incoming information
• Prior knowledge
• Distractions
• Emotions
• Task complexity
• Overload leads to error
• Diagram: cognitive load balance across intrinsic load (complexity of content), germane load (effort to process) and extraneous load (poor design), with the optimal learning zone marked along it.

Schema formation

• Diagram: new information goes through accommodation (update schema) into the existing schema (prior knowledge); accommodation also leads to assimilation (fit new info) and schema strength (through use).
• Strong schemas lead to faster learning. Better retrieval leads to more flexible thinking.

Retrieval practice loops

The testing effect

• Diagram: retrieve (effortful recall), then gap (identify what you don't know), then strengthen (reinforces memory trace), then spacing (time + repetition), then retrieve again.
• Retrieval builds stronger, more accessible memories
• Diagram: Forgetting curve: memory from 100% down to 0% across day 1, day 2, day 7 and day 30. With no practice it keeps falling; with retrieval practice it is restored at each review and stays higher.

Knowledge transfer systems

• Diagram: source context, then abstract principles, then new context; both contexts connect to what transfer requires.
• Abstract principles:
• Patterns
• Structures
• Relationships
• Rules
• Transfer requires:
• Deep understanding
• Flexible schemas
• Intentional practice
• Analogical mapping

Metacognitive regulation

• Diagram: plan, then monitor, then evaluate, then back to plan.
• Plan:
• Set goals
• Activation
• Choose strategies
• Predict difficulty
• Monitor:
• Check understanding
• Track progress
• Detect errors
• Adjust approach
• Evaluate:
• Reflect on outcomes
• Attribute success/failure
• Refine strategies

Attention allocation

• Attentional systems:
• Alerting (wake up)
• Orienting (focus)
• Executive (control)
• Attention is the gateway to learning
• Diagram: environment, then filter (select), then focus (process), then comprehend (understand); distractions compete for attention.

Cognitive overload thresholds

• Overload occurs when demands exceed capacity
• Diagram: a gauge from boredom (too easy) through the optimal zone to overload (too hard).
• Signs:
• Confusion
• Errors
• Frustration
• Mental fatigue
• Shutdown
• Manage by:
• Reducing extraneous load
• Chunking information
• Scaffolding complexity
• Building prior knowledge

Long-term memory consolidation

• Diagram: encoding (attention), then consolidation (time + processing), then storage (long-term memory), then retrieval (access + use).
• Diagram: memory strength over time: strength (vertical, low to high) from minutes to hours, days, weeks and years. Spaced practice (solid line) stays high; strong rehearsal (dashed line) declines gradually; single study (cramming, solid line with triangles) drops fast.
• Sleep, spacing, and meaningful practice strengthen consolidation

Feedback and revision cycles

• Diagram: attempt, then feedback, then compare (goal vs. actual), then adjust mental model, then attempt again.
• Quality feedback:
• Specific
• Timely
• Actionable
• Focused on process
• Fosters reflection
• Diagram: misconceptions (incorrect schema), then conflict / reflection, then accommodation (restructure).

Active learning architectures

• Diagram: Passive pathway (shallow learning): receive information, then temporary understanding, then rote memorization, then fragile memory, low transfer.
• Diagram: Active pathway (deep learning): a cycle of question & explore, practice & apply, reflect & connect, and discuss & explain; reflect & connect leads to integrate & transfer.
• Outcomes:
• Durable knowledge
• Flexible thinking
• Better transfer
• Deeper understanding
• Greater retention
• Learn by doing, then thinking, then discussing, then applying, then teaching

Conceptual growth map

• Diagram: a network grows from prior knowledge along the learning progression to expert understanding.
• Dark blue: well-developed
• Teal: developing
• Light gray: emerging
• Small dot: weak connection

Learning is a network, not a linear path.

• Shallow learning: isolated facts, low connections
• Deep learning: rich connections, high integration
• Meaning comes from connections.

The role of prior knowledge

• Diagram: new information drops into nested rings of prior knowledge labelled expert, advanced, intermediate and novice.
• Deeper prior knowledge enables deeper learning

Learning over time

• Diagram: learning growth (vertical, low to high) over weeks, months, semester and years. With good strategies (solid line, filled dots) it keeps rising; with poor strategies (dashed line, rings) it levels off.
• Strategies shape trajectory.

Principles of effective learning

• Focus attention
• Engage actively
• Retrieve often
• Connect ideas
• Reflect deeply
• Transfer widely

Design implications

• Manage cognitive load
• Build schemas
• Promote retrieval
• Encourage metacognition
• Use feedback effectively
• Foster transfer